`` City Requiem, Calcutt Gender And The Politics Of...

Dreaming of Tombstones (133-188): A Summary and Critical Analysis of Gender Issues in â€Å"City Requiem, Calcutta: Gender and the Politics of Poverty, Volume 10† by Ananya Roy In Chapter 4, Roy (2008) defines the lack of city planning for the city of Calcutta as a way to understand the amorphous nature of land boundaries, settlements, and the lives that squatters live in this city. Shah’s story of the dreams of tombstones defines the new ways in which to interpret the hegemonic discourse of rigid land boundaries. Without an urban plan to develop stable living quarters in the city, it becomes obvious that the effects of poverty are being integrated into the chaotic and unorganized methods of housing developments meant for the working poor. This occurs through the premise of electoral politics that support impoverished populations that leads to an absence of land records and maps (Roy, 2008, p.138). In this manner, the Desakota Hypothesis should be re-defined due to the existence of squatter regions throughout Calcutta, which do not fall into the rigid framework of the urban and rural divide. This aspect of the â€Å"communist† politics of Calc utta is part of the new frontiers of land management, mapping, and boundaries that define the new squatter culture in India. The hegemonic process of political domination that preserves the disorganization of working populations and the settlements in which they live. The foundation for â€Å"urban informality† is defined by Roy (2008) as a means

Freund Free Essays

Creating Deviance Rules: A Macroscopic Model Author(s): Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. We will write a custom essay sample on Freund or any similar topic only for you Order Now 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1982), pp. 157-169 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4106327 Accessed: 16/11/2009 09:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor. org. Blackwell Publishing and Midwest Sociological Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Sociological Quarterly. http://www. jstor. org The SociologicalQuarterly (Spring1982):157-169 23 Deviance Rules: Creating A Macroscopic Model* RonaldJ. Troyer,Drake University GeraldE. Markle,Western MichiganUniversity In this paperwe proposea macrolevel the modelfor analyzing creationof deviance rules. We begin by placingthe phenomenon withinthe contextof the social factist and social definitionist the sociological traditions, identifying insightsand difficulties the socialproblems We rule creation. sugliterature for deviance presents explaining difficulties be resolvedby lacingthe processwithina can gest that the theoretical The consequent dialecticalmodel of deviance framework. sociologyof knowledge is that society is composedof a numberof designation based on the assumption in of definitions deviance generalinterests varying degreesof conflictwithprevailing outcomes previous of This balanceor accommodation contests. becomes representing vulnerable with the introduction increasein strainwhich is a potentialresource or for inte rest a The groupsdesiring new definition. utcomeof the ensuingconflictis seen as dependent the abilityof the combatants employresources the battle. in on to We concludeby identifying advantages model has for studying deviance the the the rulecreation process. of This is how I treat theory: it is somethingto guide our understanding the social world; it helps us throughthe labyrinthof the buzzingconfusion of conflictingideologies, and, most of all, theory liberatesus from dead facts and worn-out myths. Davis 1980:xv) But since those sociologistswho espouse a strong and explicit determinism,and those who practice the techniquesof â€Å"verstehen,† â€Å"empathy,†and â€Å"takingthe actor’spoint of view,† differ upon so very many issues, technical and otherwise, the present suggestions are more likely to be treated as a pollution of the boundarybetween schools of thought than as a pathway to agreement. (Barnes, 1974:83-84) For decades the sociology of devianc e focused on rule violation. This approach produced works on rule violators, described which rules were violated and how they were violated, and, arguably, why they were violated. Largely neglected in this work was the process by which rules were created; that is, the process by which deviant categories and designations were constructed. Recently scholars have begun to focus attention on this issue, resulting in various empirical case studies or rationales for the import of the collective definition process (Nuehring and Markle, 1974; Conrad, 1975; Pfohl, 1977; Spector and Kitsuse, 1977; Levine, 1978; Schneider, 1978; Markle and Troyer, 1979; Conrad and Schneider, 1980. As with many deviance studies, these efforts have not produced an explicit framework relating rule creation to the broader theoretical conceptions of social processes and the structural order. As a remedy, ? 1982 by The Sociological Quarterly. All rights reserved. 0038-0253/82/1300-0157$00. 75 *The authors thank Roland Chilton, Ronald Kramer, Frances McCrea, Joseph W. Schneider, Malcolm Spector, and Mayer Zald for their helpful comments. Ronald J. Troyer’s address is Department of Sociol ogy, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa 50311. 158 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY Collins has called for a radicaldeparture deviancestudies,statfrom traditional ing that â€Å"thenext step clearlymustbe to abolishthe field of devianceentirely,to and link its materialswith what is knownof generalexplanations stratification of politics† (1975:17). And Davis (1980:5) has observedthat the time has come â€Å"for the sociology of deviance to move into mainstreamtheory–based sociology. † What theoreticalform ought these investigations take? The developments in sociologicaltheoryin the past few decadeshave been focusedaroundtwo dominant perspectives. The nature of these approachescan best be graspedby referringto Ritzer’s (1975) distinctionbetween the social factist and social definitionist paradigms. The social factist is primarilyconcernedwith the cause of social phenomena; thus the questionasked is a why question. By contrast,since the social definitionist more concernedwith process,the researchquestionis a is how question. In studyingdeviance,for example,the social factistshave focused on behaviordescribing extent and natureasking†Whydo thesepeople do it? † its focusedon the process On the otherhand, the social definitionists have primarily Howhavethesepersons as asking by whichpeoplecometo be defined deviant the label? † acquired deviant have and Webelieve the theoretical of that efforts thefactists thedefinitionists been useful. Such work, though clearly the creationand social constructionof of scholars,is necessaryif the study of rule creationis to lead to generalizations wider applicability. Towar dthat end, we reviewsome relevantliterature, develop creation a sociologyof knowledgeframework, then presenta macrodeviance and model which attemptsto bridge the gap between the factist and definitionist erspectives. Literature between PerhapsArmandMauss has best capturedthe essence of the difference the two majortraditionalapproachesto social problemstheory. The essence of the scholarlydisagreement, noted, came down to one grouparguingthat â€Å"sohe cial problems are ‘objective’realities which generate collective behavior and political action†versus the view that â€Å"socialproblemsare essentiallygenerated by collectivebehaviorand politicalprocesses†(1977:602, emphasisin original). The former closely approximatesthe social factist approach,while the latter the represents social definitionist position. Social factist scholarshave tended to explain social problemsas the product of some environmentally condition. This tradition, disharmonious usuallytermed the strain explanation,has often focused on economic conditions (Oberschall, between differentgoals, differentvalues, 1973) but also includes discrepancies values and norms, knowledgeand actions, technologyand values, and so forth (Smelser, 1962: chap. 3). Smelser,for example,indicatesthat â€Å"norm-oriented movements†(definedas attemptsto restore,protect,modify,or createnormsin the name of a generalizedbelief,† 1962:270) often springfrom the following kindsof strain: Sometimes the appearanceof new knowledge initiates a movement to apply this knowledge in order to eradicate a condition previously taken for granted. (1962: 287) CreatingDeviance Rules 159 can betweennormative and standards actualsocialconditions proAny disharmony videthe basisfor a movement whoseobjective is to modifynorms. 1962:289) it Davis (1975) used a strainmodel to explain changesin the collectivedefinition of deviance. Whileseeingdeviancedefinitions productsof powerstruggles as between groups with new rules representing values of those groups able to the win state endorsement their values, Davis suggeststhat â€Å"the diffusionof new of knowledgeis a majorcause of collective searchesfor new normsin the modern world†(1975:53). Although strain h as been a populartheoreticalapproachfor studyingsome social problems(e. g. race riots), few empiricalstudiesof deviancedesignation have followed from this tradition. PerhapsChamblisscame close in the study of the creation of new rules against vagrancy. In his words, â€Å"The vagrancy statutes emerged as a result of changes in other parts of the social structure† (1964:69). Specifically,the strain was the breakdownof the serf system; vagrancy laws were the responseof the rulingclass to protect their interestsand bring the system back to harmony. Zurcheret al. (1977) have also pointed to the crucial role of strainin the emergenceof antipornography crusades. In the communities amongstatus studied,they found that as a resultof inconsistencies variables,the traditionalmiddle class was experiencingthreatsto its life-style. were attemptsto the Consequently, effortsto gain new rulesagainstpornography bolster the legitimacyof their life-style. In other words, in the strain tradition of new definitionsof devianceare seen as responsesto the introduction various kindsof socialchangein society. Insteadof focusingon the causes of social problems,such as strain(objective traditionstressthat collective acconditions), scholarsin the social definitionist tions emergefrominteraction, processes. As Blumerstated: especiallyinterpretive â€Å"social problemslie in and are productsof a process of collective definition† (1971:301). Spector and Kitsuse (1977) pursuedthis theme with their argument that scholarsmust focus on the claims-making the process to understand emergenceof a social problemor definitionof deviance. This processtraditionhas spawneda varietyof empiricalstudies,often focusdefinitionsof deviance. The ing on the creationof criminaland health-related best known of these studies is Becker’s (1963) analysisof the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Arguingthat there was no majorincreasein the actualuse of the drug, which would be the focus of a strain explanation,Becker attributesthe new rule to the activitiesof a â€Å"moralentrepreneur. † (For other interpretations, see Dickson, 1968; Galliherand Walker, 1977, 1978. ) Other studies have argued that juvenile courts were not created as a responseto increasesin delinquency,as the strainmodel would predict,but ratheras part of a moralcrusade of (Platt, 1969) or as the productof organizational conflictbetweensupporters the police and probationdepartments (Hagan and Leon, 1977). In two studies of sex offensedefinitions,Rose (1977) and Roby (1969) also emphasizeprocessualexplanations. Roby examinedchanges in the New York State penal law on prostitution and found that the relative power of numerous interest groups and individuals determined the final version of the act. Similarly, Rose related the rise of the â€Å"rape problem† to the ideology and organizations generated by the women’s liberation movement. 160 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY of The status politics interpretation the temperancemovementby Gusfield in (1963, 1967) representsanotherone of the majorprocessualapproaches the literature. Basically,Gusfieldsuggeststhat the attemptsto have a behaviordesignated as deviantare often symbolicbattles†betweenopposedsystemsof moralities, culturesand stylesof life† (1963:173). In otherwords,it is not the behavior per se or social conditionswhich cause the attemptto label the behavioras deviant. Instead the designationof deviance must be seen as a productof status of for conflict,the competition the officialassignment honorand prestigethrough of legitimation groupnorms. The creationof new health-related of designations deviancehas been reviewed Conrad and Schneider(1980). These authorshave set forth a â€Å"sequential by of model† and â€Å"grounded on generalizations† the medicalization deviance. Following Spectorand Kitsuse,they emphasizethe import,and not the accuracy,of medicalclaims-making, view claims as strategicdevices, and view medicalization which reflectpolitics and demedicalization devianceas â€Å"cyclicalphenomena† of of the day. In the most recent processualanalysis,Schursuggeststhat deviancemust be seen as a politicalphenomenon. Arguingthat there are at least two sides in any stigmacontest, Schursuggeststhat what is really at stake in deviancedefinitions is the power of the respectivegroups. Since â€Å"power,of any sort, is more like a processthan an object† (1980:8), â€Å"deviancedefiningis not a static event but a continuousand changingprocess†(1980:66). In summary,the literaturereviewed above suggests two models for understandingthe collectivedefinitionof deviance. The process approacharguesthat collectivedefinitionsare the productof interestgroupdynamics. By contrastthe are is for, strainexplanation that societaldisjunctions responsible or at least play a majorrole in, the emergence new definitions. of BeyondDichotomousModels During the past decade, a numberof scholarshave attemptedto move beyond the raditionalstrainor processmodels. For example,Mauss (1975; Maussand of Wolfe, 1977) arguesthat new social problemsor new definitions devianceare best understoodas productsof social movementsled by interestgroups. In this view, social arrangements permit collective behaviorwhich usually focuses on structural strainsbroughtaboutby social change. Thoughmanys trainsare present in society, problem definitionis the product of interest groups organizing social movementswhich push for acceptanceof their definitionof reality. Resource mobilizationtheory is another attemptto move beyond the strain and process models. This framework begins with the assumptionthat society is composedof competinggroups (economic, status, racial,etc. ). Strainis always present,since thereis conflictamonggroupsover whichvalues,norms,economic and arrangements, so forth are to prevailin the society. Group conflictand the of social movementsare analyzedin terms of the abilityof the colemergence lectivities to create and mobilize resources (Oberschall, 1973). A dynamic element is introduced into the analysis: authorities as well as challengers possess resources; deployment by one side requires some kind of response (mobilization of additional resources) from the other side, lest the cause be defaulted. CreatingDeviance Rules 161 Marxistapproaches have also triedto move beyondstrainand processmodels. of Initially Marxist/conflict interpretations new rules defining deviance suggested that they were â€Å"firstand foremosta reflectionof the interestsof the governingclass† (Chambliss,1974:37). In this view â€Å"thestate and legal systemare seen as instruments which can be manipulated,almost at will, by the capitalist class† (Beirne, 1979:379), an approachillustratedby Platt’s (1974) reinterpretation of the establishmentof the juvenile court as a conscious effort by SomeMarxcapitaliststo preserveexistingpoliticaland economicarrangements. ists have assigneda more ambiguous role to the state (Block, 1978), suggesting that it exercises a â€Å"relativeautonomy†in its relationship the capitalistclass to the enactmentof legislationis not alwaysin (Beirne, 1979:379). Consequently, the objectiveinterestsof the capitalistclass, â€Å"but each case must be examined from and empirically on its own merits†(Beirne, 1979:380). Whatis important, this position,is that all of this occurswithinthe boundaries providedby the prevailing structuralrelations. Lauderdaleand Inveraritycriticizedthe early conflict approachesfor inadequately examiningthe politicalprocessunderlyingthe creationof deviance. Arguingthat â€Å"devianceis socially definedand as such is and changedthroughpoliticalprocesses†(1980a:36), they created,maintained, ask underwhat conditionsa form of actioncomes to be definedas deviant(Lauderdale, 1980:v). Noting previousstudiesare characterized a â€Å"preoccupation by with subjectiveinterestsand lack of attentionto measuringobjectiveinterests† (1980b:229), they call for attentionto objectiveconditionsunderlyingthe deviance definitionprocess. These efforts are advancesover analyses which attributenew definitionsof devianceto social psychological processesor to the activitiesof individuals(moral entrepreneurs). Here, at least, an effortis made to locate the deviancewithin the larger social context. However, several issues remainunresolved. First, although recent effortshave attemptedto find a role for objectiveconditions,the remainsunclear. At role of strainin the generation new deviancedesignations of one group of scholars,the social definitionists, suggestobjectivecondipresent tions are largely irrelevant,while others (especially Lauderdaleand Inverarity, to 1980b) are callingfor moreattention objectivefactors. A second majorunresolvedproblemis that none of the collectivedefinitionof deviance approachesexplains why specific behaviorsare selected for deviance silent on this issue. Finally, In categorization. fact, the literatureis remarkably the approachesdiscussedabove do not yet explainwhy some deviancecreation effortsare unsuccessful. is in this contextthat we believe that resourcemobiliIt zation theory could prove valuable in the study of rule creationand deviance designation. Not only does it point toward relevantvariablesfor study, it also to providesan empiricalframework assess previousmovementsand predictthe successor failureof ongoingmovements. Any model or theory of deviance creation must addressthese issues. More into a more genspecifically,a way must be found to subsumethese differences eral model rendering theoreticalissues amenableto empiricalevaluation. Toward a Sociology of Knowledge Given its theoretical import, it seems to us that there have been inexplicably few 162 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY studiesof rule creation. Marxists,subsuming issue withinthe superstructure, the have focusedon the creationof laws whichmaintainruling-class privilege. Strain scholarstreat new rules as responsesto changedsocial conditions(new knowledge, Davis, 1975). Only process scholars have directly addressedthe issue, viewing collective definitionsof devianceas â€Å"emergent productsof an interpretive process† (Hawkins and Tiedman, 1975:340), but studies in this tradition have not produceda rigoroustheoreticalexplanation. Instead, isolated studies have been characterized descriptiveand idiosyncratic detail withoutconnecby or tion to socialstructure generalsocialprocesses. In theirstudyof the medicalization deviance,Conradand Schneider(1980) of a solutionto the interactionist the pose impasse. Although labeling-interactionist of perspectivepresentsus with the questionsto ask concerningthe development deviancedesignations,† they note (1980:20), â€Å"it is a sociologyof knowledgeapproachthat is necessaryto answerthem. â€Å"We thinkof the sociologyof knowledge knowlas a study of the materialbasis of social ideas, categories,designations, and so forth. From this frameworkthe dependentvariablechanges: no edge, longer do we studyth e deviantactor;ratherwe attemptto locate historicallythe origins and the social forces which supportedand opposed the definitionof the deviant category. As Friedsonhas stated, the analysisshouldnot focus on â€Å"the etiology of some state so much as the etiology of the meaningof a state. Thus it asks questionslike: How does a state come to be considereddeviant? How does it come to be considered kindof devianceratherthan another? † one (1970: 215-16). deviant To developtheirknowledgeapproach, Conradand Schneider interpret behaviorsas social constructionsof reality. Adopting Berger and Luckmann’s as (1966) scheme,they view realityconstruction a social processof threestages: The processbegins with the and internalization. xternalization, objectification, of construction a culturalproductor definition a personor collectionof perby becomespartof the generallyacceptedbody sons, continuesas the new definition of knowledge,and concludesas the individualsin publictake the new definition for grantedas partof theirworldview. We applaudConradand Schneider’s explicit sociologyof knowledgeand find their social constructionist approachinsightful. Their analysisof the historical contribution a dimensionsof the medicalization deviancerepresents significant of in by placingdeviancedesignations the broadersocial context. At the sametime, we are uncomfortable with the apparentabsenceof a theoreticalmodel pointing to a more explicit method of data analysis. History is all aroundus; we need the guidanceto separate datafromthe noise. between In his Ideology and Utopia (1936), Karl Mannheimdistinguishes two types of sociologyof knowledge:†on the one hand a theoryand on the other hand an historical-sociological methodof research†(p. 266). As a theorywith the sociology of knowledgehas been pursuedvigepistemologicalimplications, orously. Its methodologicalimplicationshave, however, remainedunderdevelhimselflargelyignoredthe methodological aspectsof knowledge oped. Mannheim theory, though he did write that â€Å"the most important task of the sociology of knowledge at present is to demonstrate its capacity in actual research in the historical-sociological realm† (p. 306). The methodological implications of Mannheim’s work have been pursued most CreatingDeviance Rules 163 rigorouslyby David Bloor in his 1976 book Knowledgeand Social Imagery. Bloor contendsthat our concernshouldbe phenomenological; method,howour scientific. Thesociologistis concernedwith knowlever, ought to be rigorously edge,† he writes, â€Å"purelyas a naturalphenomenon†¦ instead of definingit as true or false belief, knowledgefor the sociologist is whatevermen take to be knowledge†(p. 2). Given that knowledgeis relativeand historicallyunstable, Bloor’s task is to elucidatethe materialbasis of its variation. To accomplishthis in task, he proposesa methodwhich he calls the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge,to wit, that our analysisought to be causal, impartial,and symmetrical. While sociologists would not want to argue that social factors are the sole cause of belief, they should focus on how social conditionsproduceand reflect belief. In demandingan approachwhich is â€Å"impartial with respectto truthand success or failure†(p. 5), Bloor is not advofalsity, rationalityor irrationality, catinga value neutralposition. The task is not to crownwinnersor punishlosers but to understandboth sides. In that sense, Bloor’s sociology is agnostic. Ultito even irrelevant, mate truth,in any sense of the phrase,is seen as peripheral, the analysis. Finally the strong programdemandsa symmetrical analysis. Too often scholarshave attempted analyzedeviantand normalbeliefs from differto ent stances, the former needing special explanation,while the latter–seen as logical, rational,or truthful-are seen to need no specialexplanation. We are interestedin using the sociology of knowledgeas a methodological to guide, as a way of using historicalmaterials build rigorousmodels. In a sense, then, we use Mannheimand Bloor to build a theoreticalmethod for empirical methods,especiallyas it appliesto socialhistory, study. The notion of theoretical has been developedby Stinchcombe(1978; see also Graff, 1980). Good social theory, he asserts,must be groundedin historicaldata. â€Å"Peopledo much better the theory,†he argues,†wheninterpreting historicalsequencethanthey do when they set out to do ‘theory'† (p. 17) and â€Å"thatthe centraloperationfor building theories of history is seeking causally significantanalogiesbetween instances† of Thuswe aremost interested the methodological in implications the sociology of knowledge:as a way of pointingtowardvariables,as a way of using history, as a way-in short-of structuring analysis. Suchan analyticstrategy,as a macroand rigorousversionof groundedtheory,ought to allow us to relateprescopic vious theoriesof devianceand our data in an iterativesort of way and, thus, to build and evaluatea model of how deviantcategoriesare designated. A DialecticalModelof DevianceDesignation In attemptingto addressthe theoreticaland methodologicalissues raised, we propose a dialecticalmodel of deviance designation. The model, presentedin to however,it attempts transcend Figure1, is influenced resourcemobilization; by arany single theory. We begin with the assumptionthat within the structural is composedof a numberof generalinterestsin varying rangements, everysociety degreesof conflict. Such groupsmay be of varyingnature:with inclusiveor exin clusive membership, broad or narrowfocus. Their concernwith the definition (p. 7). Figure 1. A DialecticalModel of DevianceDefiniti General vested other interests Definition i – +- Strain General vested other interests S/ Specific interests CreatingDeviance Rules 165 question,however,is either peripheral,quiescent,or not effectivein the public arena. The initial or prevailingdefinitionof a behavioras acceptableor unacceptable representsthe outcome of previousspecific interestgroup conflict;in other words, the balanceof the resourcesthe two sides were able to mobilize. or This balance or accommodation becomes vulnerablewith the introduction increase of strain. This developmentprovides existing general interest groups with a new resourceand opportunity claims-making. for Specificinterestgroups towardthe specific (includingthe state) form,or mobilize,or becomeredirected issue in question. Faced with a challenge to their interests,groups benefiting from the prevailingdefinitionrespondby marshaling their own resources. The battle of these groups to maintainor change a rule is joined, the outcome dependingon the balance of the mobilizedresources. To speak of the â€Å"balanceof mobilized resources†should not be seen as merely suggestinga simplisticaccountingbalance. Of coursethe matteris muchmore complex. For example,the efficientemployment resources–usingresourcesin an arenawherethey have of maximal impact-may be just as importantas quantity. The net result is that over a periodof time, at time2,the originaldefinitionsurvivesor a new designation takesits place. for In explicatingthe model, we make the following arguments its utility in collectivedefinition deviance: of examining issues raisedin the 1. The model addressesor handlesmanyof the theoretical literature. For example, existing sociological explanations assign central importance to, or ignore, the role of strain. The dialectical model directs the scholar’sattentionto the role of strainbut does not preclude,in fact demands, examinationof other social processes. In addition,by viewing the state as an interestedparty, albeit a group with unique resources,it is possibleto examine official actions without assumingthe existence of an all powerfulmonolithical the definitional outcomes. Furthermore, modelpermitsanalysis entitydetermining and explanationof outcomeswhereneitherside achievestotal victory. in 2. The dialecticalmodel is consistentwith the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge. As Bloor (1976) has requested,this modelis causal,impartial, and symmetrical. Figure 1 is time ordered;that is, variablesappearin causal sequence with one another. Moreoverthese sequences are made explicit, thus data analysis. The model thus allowsfor attemptsat statisticalmodelfacilitating of processvariablesby techniquesdevelopedfrom social factisttraditions. ing The model treats deviance rule creationsas naturalphenomena. Whethera rule is good or bad is irrelevant our analysis. RecallingGusfield’sstudyof the to temperancemovement,the validityof analysiswas independentof truthclaims about alcohol. Whetherthe drug is actuallyan aphrodisiac,a depressant,or a tool of the devil was essentiallyirrelevantto his conclusions. Taking such an it agnosticpositionhas methodological implications: allowsfor the formalmodelvariables. Moreover,Bloor’slast dictum-that analysis ing of phenomenological be symmetrical–hasobvious implicationsfor the dialecticalmodel. Note that interestsfor or againstany definitionare handledin the same way, and have the same causal input into the model. 166 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY 3. The model is dialectical. The theoryis timelessand has no end stage. Figure 1 shows only one referenceframe. But upon acceptanceof â€Å"Definition2,† general vested or other interestsare alreadyin place, advocatingfor or againsta new definition. Though the theory is sequential,in the sense that it goes forwardin remainuntime, the units of time are not specified. Some deviancedesignations for long periods of time, others move more rapidlythroughstages of changed and vindication. Conradand Schneider,thinkingalong the same stigmatization of and demedicalization deviance the lines, have conceptualized medicalization as â€Å"cyclical†(1980:271). We preferto use the termdialectical,in that it leaves ratherthan suggestinga rethe directionof the next redefinition problematic as turnto an originalpoint. nor4. Deviance and normalcyare not distinctcategories. We conceptualize coordinatesystem. As a prescribed as a point in a multidimensional guide malcy for conduct, a rule designatesthe limits of space aroundthe point in which a behavioris seen as deviant. behavioris viewed as normal. Outsidethis boundary, Now we can justify using the terms â€Å"rulecreation†and â€Å"deviancedesignation† more or less synonymously. The formerrefersto the boundaryitself, whichmay be thick or fuzzy; the latter refers to the space outside the boundary. Any behavioralboundary,in our view, is subject to cultural,temporal,or situational between factorswhich continuously defineit, or redefineit. Thus is the boundary deviancy and normalcycontinuouslydrawnand redrawn,and a behavioralresituation,but ratherby definitionoccursnot by quantumleaps, as an â€Å"either-or† or pulled througha system of space. In the dialecticalmodel the being pushed as pushesor pulls aremanifested strainor process. and analyticintentions 5. The model is macroscopic. Our conceptualization the collectivelevel. We do not directlyconsider,for example,the are clearly at motivationsof an individualactor or leader. For two reasonswe down-playthe importof, or perhapseven ignore,such questionsas: Did leaderX makedecision or Y sincerelyor cynically? Is he or she a moralentrepreneur a typical (but not concernedsuburbanite? First,we doubt,in social factistlanguage, authoritarian) that such variablesexplainvery much variancein deviancedesignation. The individual,qua individual,role in collective, historicprocessesis always limited. To Our second reasonis methodological: the extentthat psychologicalvariables are important,how are they to be measuredor assessed? For historicalstudies, motivationseems particularly Secondarysources,as well as various problematic. kinds of documents,seem suspecthere. Even in contemporary settings,people’s of their own or others’motivationsare not trustworthy, especiallygiven reports or the vested or strategicinterestswhich can be served by lying, exaggerating, selectivelyforgetting. Rather,we focus on such variablesas strainand resources over time. and which can be operationalized measuredcomparably 6. The dialecticalmodel uses history. The model invites, perhapseven demands, a given rule to be placed in historical context. Moreover the data needed to test the model are historical, preferably in time series, data. The model is shaped by these data and is thus grounded and inductive as Conrad and Schnei- CreatingDeviance Rules 167 der (1980:265) have suggested. In that sense the dialecticalmodel is meant to evaluate,as much as formallytest, historicalsequencesof data. 7. The model is conflictoriented,though not necessarilyMarxist. Many deviance designations,particularlythose formalizedas laws, are amenableto a Marxist analysis consistentwith the model. Large sums of money or other resources are often used by ruling elites for maintenanceof deviance definitions do or, less often, change. However,some deviancedefinitions not seem to fit the Marxistmodel (see Markle and Troyer, 1979, or Hagan and Leon, 1977, for two such case studies). In the dialecticalmodel, vested or other interests(religious, ethnic, sex, status,etc. ) can militatefor, and indeedbe successfulat, creat(uneming new definitionsof deviance. Similarlystrainmightbe substructural strain ployment,new technology,etc. ), but the model allows for superstructural (e. g. , new knowledge). Using the DialecticalModel As an inductivetheory,the true test of the dialecticalmodel is its utility. Let us and suggesta few ways, then, how the model mightbe operationalized used. We in begin with the concept of strain,which can be operationalized severalways. In our own researchon cigarettesmoking(Markleand Troyer,1979) and estrolegen replacements(McCrea and Markle, 1980), strainwas the appearance, or dissemination new knowledge; strainin our researchon Laetrile of gitimation, (Markle and Petersen, 1980) was, among other factors, an increasedconcern over cancer. As new health-related knowledgeclaims, strain can be measured with variousbibliometric techniques. A simple content analysisof relevantarticles, over a period of years, from Index Medicus can be used to chart such knowledgeclaims. The perceivedlegitimacyof such claims can be assessedby the professionalprestige of the author or journal. Finally, the entry of such knowledgeclaims into the public arena can be measuredusing the New York Times Index, which Jenkins and Perrow (1977) found highly effective,or by one of severalnewspaperdata banks (e. g. , Newsbank)now in existence. After looking at strain,it is easy enoughto identifyspecificinterestsinvolved in redefinition. Such organizations groups will have appearedas recipients, or sponsors,aggrievedparties,etc. , in news accountsor scholarlycitation. The resources of these groups can be measuredin severalways. The Encyclopediaof Associations, updated almost yearly, lists purportedmembershipsand other for simple demographics manysuchgroups. Moreover,most interestgroupshave which are usuallyeasy to obtain, often at literatureor even regularpublications no cost. When interests are corporate,much informationon resourcescan be gleaned from annual reports or, with somewhatmore effort, from regulatory In agenciessuch as the Securitiesand ExchangeCommission. ase studieswhere is an interestedparty, vast amounts of official statistics may be government available (see, e. g. , Markle and Troyer, 1979). Moreover,the researchercan use the Freedomof Information Act to obtain a deep windowinto government actions and resourcesin variousdeviancedesignations. Throughpublic records and other availabledata, every conce pt in the dialecticalmodel can be operationalized. Indeed,to measureresourcesin comparable ways, we have suggested of the development a researchprotocol (Markleand Petersen,1981). 168 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY A Final Word iancearecreated changed, beenneglected socialtheory research. and or in has We believethat neglectcomes from theoretical The misdirection. dialectical thesedifficulties. to model,whichis knowledge based,is ourattempt ameliorate Becauseit attempts integrate traditional the theoryinvites to two approaches, both philosophical- empirical-based and criticisms. Thoughwe welcomethe we The in interested thelatter. realtestof thedialectical former, areparticularly modelis whether works. it Andwhether not it workscan onlybe judged or by it holdingit up to the lightof, and adjudicating with,historicaland contemporary A crucialelementof social change and conflict,why and how definitionsof de- research. REFERENCES Barnes, Barry. 1974. ScientificKnowledgeand SociologicalTheory. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. Becker, Howard S. 1963. Outsiders:Studiesin the Sociology of Deviance. New York: Free Press. and the critiqueof Marxismon law and crime. † Social Problems26:373Beirne, Piers. 1979. â€Å"Empiricism 85. Berger, Peter L. , and Thomas Luckmann. 1966. The Social Constructionof Reality. Garden City, N. Y. : Doubleday. Block, Fred. 1978. â€Å"The rulingclass does not rule. † Pp. 128-40 in RichardQuinney,ed. CapitalistSociety: Readingsfor a CriticalSociology. Homewood,Ill. : Dorsey. Bloor, David. 1976. Knowledgeand Social Imagery. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. Blummer,Herbert. 1962. â€Å"Society as symbolic interaction. â€Å"Pp. 179-92 in Arnold Rose, ed. , Human Behaviorand Social Processes. Boston:HoughtonMiffltin. 1971. â€Å"Socialproblemsas collectivebehavior. â€Å"Socia l Problems18:298-306. —. Chambliss,William J. 1964. â€Å"A sociologicalanalysisof the law of vagrancy. â€Å"Social Problems12:67-77. . 1974. â€Å"The state, the law, and the definitionof behavior as criminalor delinquent. â€Å"Pp. 7-42 in Daniel Glaser, ed. Handbookof Criminology. Bobbs-Merrill. Indianapolis: Collins, Randall. 1975. ConflictSociology: TowardAn ExplanatoryScience. New York: AcademicPress. Conrad, Peter. 1975. â€Å"The discovery of hyperkinesis:notes on the medicalizationof deviant behavior. † Social Problems23:12-21. , and JosephW. Schneider. 1980. Deviance and Medicalization:From Badnessto Sickness. St. Louis: Mosby. Davis, F. James. 1975. â€Å"Beliefs, values, power, and public definitionsof deviance. â€Å"Pp. 50-59 in F. James Davis and RichardStivers,eds. , The CollectiveDefinitionof Deviance. New York: Free Press. of Davis, Nanette J. 980. SociologicalConstruction Deviance:Perspectivesand Issues in the Field. 2d ed. Dubuque,Iowa: Wm. C . Brown. and morality:an organizational perspectiveon a moral crusade. † Dickson, Donald T. 1968. â€Å"Bureaucracy Social Problems16:143-56. Freidson,Eliot. 1970. Proessionof Medicine. New York: Dodd, Mead. Galliher,John F. 1978. â€Å"The politics of systematicresearcherror: the case of the Federal Bureauof Narcotics as a moralentrepreneur. † Crimeand Social Justice10:29-33. , and Allyn Walter. 1977. â€Å"The puzzle of the social origins of the MarihuanaTax Act of 1937. † Social Problems24:367-76. TheoreticalMethodsin Social History. American Graft, Harvey J. 1980. Review of ArthurJ. Stinchcombe, Journalof Sociology85:1442-46. Gusfield, Joseph. 1963. Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the AmericanTemperanceMovement. Urbana: Universityof Illinois Press. -. 1967. â€Å"Moral passage: the symbolic process in public designationsof deviance. â€Å"Social Problems 15:175-88. delinquency:social history, political ideology, and Hagan, John, and Jeffery Leon. 1977. â€Å"Rediscovering the sociologyof law. † AmericanSociologicalReview42:587-98. CreatingDevianceRules 169 Hawkins, Richard, and Gard Tiedman. 975. The Creation of Deviance. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill. Jenkins, J. Craig, and Charles Perrow. 1977. â€Å"Insurgencyand the powerless: farm worker movements (1946-1972). â€Å"AmericanSociologicalReview42:249-68. Lauderdale,Pat, ed. 1980. A Political Analysis of Deviance. Minneapolis:Universityof MinnesotaPress. , and James Inverarity. 1980a. â€Å"From apoli ticalto political analysesof deviance. â€Å"Pp. 15-44 in Pat Lauderdale,ed. , A Political Analysis of Deviance. Minneapolis:Universityof MinnesotaPress. . 1980b. â€Å"Afterword: suggestionfor the study of the political dimensionsof deviancedefinition. Pp. 221-37 in Pat Lauderdale, ed. , A Political Analysisof Deviance. Minneapolis:Universityof Minnesota. Levine, Harry Gene. 1978. â€Å"The discoveryof addiction: changingconceptionsof habitual drunkenness in America. â€Å"Journalof Studieson Alcohol 39:143-74. McCrea, Frances B. , and Gerald E. Markle. 1981. â€Å"The estrogen replacementcontroversyin the United States and Great Britain: differentanswersto the same question? â€Å"Paper presentedat the AnnualMeeting of the Societyfor the Social Studiesof Science,Toronto. Mannheim, Karl. 1936. Ideology and Utopia. Translatedby Louis With and Edward Shils. New York: Harcourt,Brace and World. Markle, Gerald E. , and James C. Petersen. 1980. Politics, Science, and Cancer: The LaetrilePhenomenon. Boulder,Colo. : WestviewPress. , 1981. â€Å"Controversiesin science and technology: a protocol for comparativeresearch. † Science Technologyand HumanValues 6:25-30. Markle, Gerald C. , and Ronald J. Troyer. 1979. â€Å"Smoke gets in your eyes: cigarettesmoking as deviant behavior. â€Å"Social Problems26:611-25. J. Mauss, ArmandL. 1975. Social Problemsas Social Movements. Philadelphia: B. Lippincott. Sociology6:602-606. . 1977. Reviewof social problemsbooks. Contemporary , and Julie Camile Wolfe. 1977. This Land of Promises. Philadelphia:J. B. Lippincott. of Neuhring, Elaine, and Gerald E. Markle. 1974. â€Å"Nicotine and norms: the re-emergence a deviant behavior. † Social Problems21:513-26. Oberschall,Anthony. 1973. Social Conflictand Social Movements. EnglewoodCliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall. Pfohl, StephenJ. 1977. â€Å"The discoveryof child abuse. † Social Problems24:310-23. Platt, Anthony M. 1969. The Child Savers: The Inventionof Delinquency. Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press. 1974. â€Å"The triumphof benevolence:the originsof the juvenilejustice systemin the United States. -. Pp. 356-89 in RichardQuinney,ed. , CriminalJusticein America. Boston: Little, Brownand Company. 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Clinical Governance In Improving Delivery -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Clinical Governance In Improving Delivery? Answer: Introduction The importance of engaging consumers in the delivery process of healthcare services has repeatedly been pointed out across the literature. Healthcare consumers are directly linked with the way in which services are provided in care settings and the quality of the same, making them stakeholders in this process (Cherry Jacob, 2016). According to the researchers, the process of involving consumers in the process of care delivery is highly complex, and need strategic interventions to enable consumers to participate in the service delivery process. Liu et al., (2015) highlighted two effective strategies through which one can ensure consumer participation in healthcare service. The first strategy is a crucial one and entails individualized care delivery system. The rationale behind engaging patients on an individual basis lies in the principle that comprehensive care is the aim of all services. It is, however, to be remembered that the social background and cultural preferences of the cli ent are to be taken into consideration while interacting with him so that the process is safe for him. The second strategy would be to involve the consumers in resource planning and allocation within the respective care setting. This relates to receiving feedback from them in context of their satisfaction level respective of resource allocation. The most fundamental element would be human resource allocation as this acts as the supporting framework for any care service. Role of nurse in increased consumer participation At present, my contribution to the healthcare system is as a registered nurse, and I strongly believe that patient engagement in clinical decision making is of prime importance. While working at the geriatric ward of a reputed healthcare setting I had to once deliver care to a 75-year-old patient of African origin who was suffering from diabetes mellitus and had been admitted to the unit for undergoing hip fracture surgery. My subject knowledge helped me in acknowledging that individuals from the Hispanic origin have a strong belief in their culture, and respect their traditions and customs. Such group of the population has a preference for traditional healing systems and minimally supports pharmacological treatment options. I, therefore, thought it desirable to engage the patient in his care plan and assess his preferences in relation to lifestyle modification strategies for health development. I successively outlined the care plan on the basis of the input provided and laid out the discharge plan accordingly. I was content to witness the patient have a speedy recovery. As stated by Mohammed et al., (2016) patient engagement in care planning leads to better patient outcomes. National Safety and Quality Health Service Standard The National Safety and Quality Health Service (NSQHS) Standards has been a prominent guide to optimal quality healthcare services which was outlined by the Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care (ACSQHC). These ten standards have the aim of ensuring that healthcare consumers are provided with safe and secured services and that they are protected from potential harm while receiving care. The NSQHS standard 3 is based on Preventing and Controlling Healthcare Associated Infections. The mentioned standard focuses on the systems and approaches must be followed by healthcare professionals for reducing the risks of infections suffered by the patient (safety and quality.go.au, 2012). Non-adherence to the set of the guideline and best practices would be drastic for the patients since healthcare associated infections have been long linked with increased rates of modality as well as mortality. Healthcare associated infections (HAIs) are the distinct infections suffered by p atients while receiving care in a healthcare organization (Nez-Nez et al., 2017). HAIs are of the major healthcare concerns across the globe at the contemporary era. Chen et al., (2017) supported this by stating that HAIs contribute to increased healthcare costs and burden on care giver apart from poorer outcomes for patients. Resource allocation is challenging under such scenario as an increased number of hospital bed days are found to be consumed. The ultimate consequence is the poor quality of patients lives. Strategies to improve patient outcomes for the standard As a registered nurse I have always understood my accountability in adhering to best practices for preventing HAIs. The key strategy, as per my nursing knowledge, to ensure infection prevention is adherence to adequate hand hygiene techniques. As pinpointed by Jones et al., (2017) transmission of infectious pathogenic organisms is promoted by hands, acting as a suitable vehicle. It is, therefore, logical to exhibit good hand hygiene practices while working in a healthcare unit. Throughout my practice, I have ensured that I adequately wash my hands on a regular basis with suitable disinfectant prior to and after handling a patient. Evidence points out that alcohol-based hand rubs are mostly effective in a care setting (Sunkesula et al., 2017), and I have taken initiative to ensure the provision for the same is present. To add more relevance to practices for prevention of HAIs, I ensure to wear personal protective equipment while working in the care setting. According to Kang et al., ( 2017) personal protective equipment such as gloves, apron and masks are effective in eliminating the transfer of microorganisms between individuals in care settings. Transfer of body fluids is minimized when prudent measures are taken, and sterile environment is maintained. Leadership and management for nursing role Healthcare leadership has drawn the considerable attention of healthcare advocates in the recent few years against the evolving demands of healthcare sector (). Leadership in nursing context has been defined as the management style in which critical thinking and advocacy ensures optimal quality care delivery. Leadership roles played by nurses have a direct impact on the healthcare system as a whole. Two distinct leadership roles registered nurses are to demonstrate in due course of their practice are to be discussed in here. As suggested by Weiss and Tappen (2014) nurses are to play a proactive role in motivating the team within which the professional is working. This relates to mentoring of the team using appropriate strategies. A nurse leader must understand that different people can be motivated ideally in a different manner, and consequently find strategies to empower and motivate them. Leaders, playing the role of mentors, must be giving other the opportunity to engage in the pr ocess of critical decision making. Gopee and Galloway (2017) commented that nurses are required to demonstrate leadership ability by collaborating with colleagues under diverse situations. It is significant for nurses to establish effective and healthy relationships to bridge the gap in communication. Professionals face challenges in communicating with other healthcare providers in a timely and efficient manner. Leadership can solve this concern and enable a nurse to work in collaboration with other professionals such as therapists, physicians and fellow nurses. Personal development of leadership skill Reflecting on the results of Leadership Skills Inventory the leadership skill I would like to develop is conceptual skills. Conceptual skills allow a leader to visualize the entire organization and the responsibilities to be fulfilled with relationships between abstract concepts and ideas that are innovative. Recognizing the relationships and understanding the noteworthy components in any situation, a leader can act in a way, which advances the over-all welfare of the total organization. With developed conceptual skills, one is able to solve problems and formulate processes in a suitable manner. For this, one needs to understand the relationship between concepts, symbols, patters and ideas. In this regard, it is to be stated that conceptual skills need conceptual thinking, including critical thinking, innovative thinking, implementation thinking and intuitive thinking (Northhouse, 2018). For developing my conceptual skills, I would need to look at the scenario as a whole instead of considering parts of it. This would involve critical thinking about a particular subject and analysis of the potential outcome. Some of the methods by which I would develop my conceptual skills are observation, identification of problems as case studies, attending seminars, reading about different case studies, discussing ideas with colleagues and volunteering for cross-functional assignments. These are crucial ways of developing ideas and getting feedback on them from other professionals (Weiss Tappen, 2014). Organizational culture for learning and professional development A healthcare system is made up of individuals and systems that interact with each other to restore and maintain health. Health care organizations are a crucial element of a healthcare system, and nurses working in diverse practice settings hold the responsibility of engaging in a learning culture that differentiates the settings from others. A learning organizational culture has been described differently by different scholars. Some argue it to be the cumulative result of learning in teams and the collective knowledge gathering occurring in the setting. Such learning culture has also been linked with an increase in organizational efficiency and effectiveness through mutual understanding and shared knowledge. The overall impact is therefore on the performance of the organization on a regular basis (Gagnon et al., 2015). Tsai (2014) in this regard gave the viewpoint that learning culture is to be considered as a system-level phenomenon forming a characteristic of the organization irres pective of the changes faced by professionals who are a part of it. Organizational learning is altered context-specific learning by team members to translating knowledge into practice and successfully evaluating those for creating shared knowledge amongst themselves. Individual and team learning has been reported to complement organizational learning (Ammouri et al., 2015). Contribution of nurse to a learning culture A registered nurse can play a primate role in enabling a leaning culture in the organization he is working in so that the same can address the evolving needs of healthcare. By promoting a learning culture, a nurse can understand the dynamic systems of healthcare and improve patient care (Masters, 2015). In this context, I would bring into focus two strategies through which I have the potential to lead to a learning culture in my workplace. The first and most important method would be to engage in reflective practice. As stated by Howatson-Jones (2016) reflective practice enables a nurse to critically reflect on own practice and analyze own experiences in the context of present situations. Logical implications are to be drawn through reflections that give the opportunity to act in a different manner in future. Reflective practice is the artistic process that would enable me to engage in thinking about a certain activity that allows the professional to challenge assumptions about prese nt practices. The second strategy to contribute to a learning culture is to promote continuous research directed towards knowledge enhancement. As opined by Maters (2015) nursing research helps in learning advancements in the nursing domain, and I would, therefore, be better placed to deliver better quality care. Translation of nursing research into practice, in the form of evidence-based practice, would be crucial in this regard. Professional practice as a registered nurse Role conflict in nursing domain refers to the conflicting situation when demands exceed the practice activities involving a professional fulfilling more than one role. Role conflict has been pointed out to be the situation where a nurse has to play two dissimilar roles that are not companionable with each other. Multiple roles usually include care provider, resource manager and educator, and role changing between these lead to role conflict. Such role conflicts are common in settings where there is much demand for care services against huge consumer population (Kearney-Nunnery, 2015). Schmidt et al., (2014) argued that role conflict in nursing has multiple organizational and personal effects, the latter being of much importance. Under situations when a nurse experiences role conflict, it is inevitable that the professional would suffer frustration, tension, dissatisfaction and showcase tendency to withdraw from the collaborative team. The levels of occupational stress and emotional e xhaustion experienced by nurses are noteworthy. This leads to poor productivity performance as compared than the expected limits without role conflict (Almost et al., 2016). Role conflict is primarily of qualitative nature. Different nurses tend to react differently to role conflict. This implies that role conflicts have a dissimilar impact on each individual. Self-care strategies for nurses Nurses are prone to suffer stress and burnout due to role conflicts, and they must address to issue to ensure safe and satisfactory practice. Self-care strategies are beneficial in reducing emotional and physical burnout imposed by role conflict. Such strategies ensure that a peaceful and relaxing environment is created that helps in restoration of lost energy and zeal (Masters, 2015). Two self-care strategies for nurses are participation in relaxation exercises and taking breaks between shifts. These techniques have been proved to be powerful to reduce stress and augment nurses overall being wellbeing. Further, these methods act as a guiding vehicle for physical healing. Self-hypnosis, guided imagery, and progressive relaxation in combination with deep breathing have been commonly practised by nurses as beneficial relaxation techniques. The aim of taking breaks between shifts all these techniques is to enhance the relaxation response of the body that enables a feeling of well-being. A nurse can engage in multiple recreational activities during such breaks that can divert the mind from occupational stress on a temporary basis which is praiseworthy. It is to be highlighted that nurses are to be encouraged by the respective care organizations to adhere to such practices for supporting optimal care delivery (Cherry Jacob, 2016). References Almost, J., Wolff, A. C., Stewart?Pyne, A., McCormick, L. G., Strachan, D., D'souza, C. (2016). Managing and mitigating conflict in healthcare teams: an integrative review.Journal of advanced nursing,72(7), 1490-1505.DOI: 10.1111/jan.12903 Ammouri, A. A., Tailakh, A. K., Muliira, J. K., Geethakrishnan, R., Al Kindi, S. N. (2015). Patient safety culture among nurses.International nursing review,62(1), 102-110. DOI: 10.1111/inr.12159 Chen, Y., Zhao, J. Y., Shan, X., Han, X. L., Tian, S. G., Chen, F. Y., ...Luo, A. (2017). A point-prevalence survey of healthcare-associated infection in fifty-two Chinese hospitals.Journal of Hospital Infection,95(1), 105-111. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2016.08.010 Cherry, B., Jacob, S. R. (2016).Contemporary nursing: Issues, trends, management. Elsevier Health Sciences. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?id=vzzdCwAAQBAJprintsec=frontcoverdq=Cherry,+B.,+%26+Jacob,+S.+R.+(2016).+Contemporary+nursing:+Issues,+trends,+%26+management.+Elsevier+Health+Sciences.hl=ensa=Xved=0ahUKEwiq8ZjN5bTZAhVGj5QKHX-7AKoQ6AEILDAB#v=onepageqf=false Gagnon, M. P., Payne-Gagnon, J., Fortin, J. P., Par, G., Ct, J., Courcy, F. (2015). A learning organization in the service of knowledge management among nurses: A case study.International Journal of Information Management,35(5), 636-642. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2015.05.001 Gopee, N., Galloway, J. (2017).Leadership and management in healthcare.Sage. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?id=GRgjDgAAQBAJprintsec=frontcoverdq=Gopee,+N.,+%26+Galloway,+J.+(2017).+Leadership+and+management+in+healthcare.+Sage.hl=ensa=Xved=0ahUKEwjOr7_w5bTZAhWBE5QKHdUECgEQ6AEIKzAB#v=onepageqf=false Howatson-Jones, L. (2016).Reflective practice in nursing.Learning Matters. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QxCOgWpAGi4Cprintsec=frontcoverdq=Howatson-Jones,+L.+(2016).+Reflective+practice+in+nursing.+Learning+Matters.hl=ensa=Xved=0ahUKEwjVlYyZ5rTZAhUCnJQKHU7iD1wQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepageqf=false Jones, D., Martello, M., Biron, A., Lavoie?Tremblay, M. (2017).A systematic review on the effectiveness of interventions to improve hand hygiene compliance of nurses in the hospital setting.Journal of Nursing Scholarship,49(2), 143-152. DOI: 10.1111/jnu.12274 Kang, J., O'donnell, J. M., Colaianne, B., Bircher, N., Ren, D., Smith, K. J. (2017). Use of personal protective equipment among health care personnel: Results of clinical observations and simulations.American journal of infection control,45(1), 17-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2016.08.011 Kearney-Nunnery, R. (2015).Advancing Your Career Concepts in Professional Nursing. FA Davis. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=5xiQCgAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PP2dq=professional+nursing,+bookots=wdzj_LtgKusig=ai_q7wjKBrW5Ipo_KhiOZH6R0hg#v=onepageq=professional%20nursing%2C%20bookf=false Liu, C., Bartram, T., Casimir, G., Leggat, S. G. (2015). The link between participation in management decision-making and quality of patient care as perceived by Chinese doctors.Public Management Review,17(10), 1425-1443. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2014.930507 Masters, K. (2015).Role development in professional nursing practice.Jones Bartlett Publishers. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=ftkBCwAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PR1dq=professional+nursing,+bookots=nhRmCWZmBtsig=DJKoDD5lJqych5iX-sPS2x91l4M#v=onepageq=professional%20nursing%2C%20bookf=false Mohammed, K., Nolan, M. B., Rajjo, T., Shah, N. D., Prokop, L. J., Varkey, P., Murad, M. H. (2016).Creating a patient-centered health care delivery system: a systematic review of health care quality from the patient perspective.American Journal of Medical Quality,31(1), 12-21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1062860614545124 National Safety and Quality Health Service Standards.(2012).safetyandquality.gov.au. Retrieved 11 September 2017, from https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/NSQHS-Standards-Sept-2012.pdf Northouse, P. G. (2018).Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications. Nez-Nez, M., Navarro, M. D., Gkolia, P., Rajendran, N. B., Del Toro, M. D., Voss, A., ... Rodrguez-Bao, J. (2017). Surveillance systems from public health institutions and scientific societies for antimicrobial resistance and healthcare-associated infections in Europe (SUSPIRE): protocol for a systematic review.BMJ open,7(3), e014538. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-014538 Schmidt, S., Roesler, U., Kusserow, T., Rau, R. (2014). Uncertainty in the workplace: Examining role ambiguity and role conflict, and their link to depressiona meta-analysis.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,23(1), 91-106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.711523 Sunkesula, V. C., Kundrapu, S., Knighton, S., Cadnum, J. L., Donskey, C. J. (2017). A Randomized Trial to Determine the Impact of an Educational Patient Hand-Hygiene Intervention on Contamination of Hospitalized Patients Hands with Healthcare-Associated Pathogens.Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology,38(5), 595-597. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/ice.2016.323 Tsai, Y. (2014). Learning organizations, internal marketing, and organizational commitment in hospitals.BMC health services research,14(1), 152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-14-152 Weiss, S. A., Tappen, R. M. (2014).Essentials of nursing leadership and management. FA Davis. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=EIEsBQAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PR1dq=nursing,+leadershipots=O5dDtjMQvwsig=wgtvX5_quIatZ6LtLRKkxAgGbJw#v=onepageq=nursing%2C%20leadershipf=false

Teenage Pregnancy Speech Essay Example

Teenage Pregnancy Speech Essay Speech Purpose To persuade the audience to support the prevention of teenage pregnancy. Thesis: The problem of teenage pregnancy should be prevented rather than glorified. Claim: Policy Organizational Pattern: Problem-solution l. Introduction A. Attention Getter: In todays society, teens are faced with many pressures. The effect of these pressures put on them is the Inability to make good decisions when It comes to certain situations. Two of the most common situations that teens find themselves pressured into have to do with alcohol and sex when they are not ready. And more often than not, the two are related. B. Relevance: Most of us, being on a college campus, have been around alcohol or drugs, whether we care to admit it or not. According to an article titled Teens Tempting Fate, accessed April 30, 2012, when sober, about 75% of teens remember to use protection. While intoxicated, only 10% remember to use protection. Boys, imagine waking up next to a random girl, not remembering what happened the night before, and then finding out a month later that she is pregnant with your child. We will write a custom essay sample on Teenage Pregnancy Speech specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Teenage Pregnancy Speech specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Teenage Pregnancy Speech specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Girls, imagine being in the same situation, but having to contact that random boy and tell him that you are pregnant. C. Credibility: A few years ago, this very problem happened to one of my friends, and I had to support her as she went through all of the hardships of being pregnant at 16. Her situation got me interested in what can be done to prevent this issue. D. Thesis: In my pollen, the problem of teenage pregnancy should be prevented rather than glorified. E. Preview: To further understand why teenage pregnancy Is such an Issue, I will first discuss some of the biggest causes of teenage pregnancy, then, the effects that media has on a teenagers view of teenage pregnancy, and finally, discuss some f the solutions that have been brought up. Transition: To begin, I will talk about some of the situations that teens are put In that can lead to becoming pregnant at a young age. II. Body A. There are many supposed causes for teenage pregnancies, some more common than others. Most high schools have a health education class. At my high school, this class was required for every student to take their sophomore year. In this class, we learned everything we would ever need to know about our bodies, Including how schools have a sex education program, for others this is not the case. I. According o Judy Cherish, in an interview conducted on April 25, 2012, the high school in her town, Princeton Texas, does not have a sex education program. In 2006, the state of Texas had the highest rate of pregnancies in the entire US. Lack of sex education is said to play a big role in teenage pregnancies. On the flip side, a lot of kids who know all about birth control are simply too scared or to embarrassed to ask about it. Girls might be afraid to ask their parents about birth control because she is afraid that her parents will be displeased that she is having sex. Boys might be embarrassed to go to the local C.V. to buy a pack of condoms. Another big contributor to teenage pregnancy is peer pressure. There are plenty of girls that have been pressured to have sex when they are not ready. When you are young and dont know the difference between right and wrong, peer pressure is an easy thing to give in to. As sad as it is, rape is another source of multiple teenage pregnancies. Sometimes the abuser is a random man, but there have been multiple cases with a friend or family member being the abuser. According to the article Causes of Teenage Pregnancies, accessed earlier this week, in a study, the abuser was at least ix years older than the victim. Transition: Whether a teenager has had a sex deed class or not, most of them have been around the media. B. Certain television shows give an unrealistic impression of what being a teenage parent is actually like. Most of us have heard of the BBC Family show the Secret Life of the American Teenager. In my opinion, this show is accidental glorification of the life on a teenage mom. According to the article The Media Addresses Teenage Pregnancy, accessed earlier this week, the show is centered on Amy, a teenage mother, and everything she goes through being a mother. Now this is where BBC Family goes wrong. Amy is offered a Job that provides free health insurance and free daycare. The father of the baby gets a Job and an apartment, and also helps out with the baby. BBC is giving teens the illusion that everything works out for a teen mother and everyone will drop everything to help out with the baby. They are not showing the realities of being a teen parent. On the other side of the argument, there are some shows that do depict the ugly truth of being a parent so young. Mats 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom definitely make teen pregnancy look like a living hell. These woo shows reveal all of the hardships that come along on the road to being a parent, such as the tough decisions, the financial problems, and they even show the painful births. While these families no doubt are being paid buckets of money to be on this show, it does give a better view on what teenage pregnancy is actually like rather than Abss fantasy version. Although Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant give a good example of what it is like, some girls are still desperate to have a baby, and that will never change. Transition: Finally, we will discuss some of the solutions that can help the issue. First choice would be abstinence. This is the only way to be 100% sure that you will not get pregnant, but most people who are already sexually active dont like this choice. Girls, at this age, you can talk to your doctors on your own and obtain birth control pills such as Hazy or Seasonings. If you do happen to find yourself in a situation where you would need it, Plan B is always available at the pharmacy. Plan B is simply a higher dose off birth control drug. Another very obvious option is condoms. I understand that it is embarrassing to be seen buying condoms at th e store, but honestly is it worth risking having a baby to save yourself a little embarrassment? They are cheap and there are a large variety of them. All around a much better option than risking getting pregnant. Transition: By learning about the issue of teenage pregnancy we can reduce the subject of kids having kids. Ill. Conclusion A. No matter what we do there is no way to completely eliminate teenage pregnancy. B. Kids are going to have sex no matter what because, well, they are kids. They want to feel grown up. But we can take certain steps to try to reduce the number of young pregnancies. C. So, next time you find yourself in a situation similar to this, Just remember, dont be silly, wrap your Wily! Teenage Pregnancy speech Essay Example Teenage Pregnancy speech Essay To persuade the audience to support the prevention of teenage pregnancy. Thesis: The problem of teenage pregnancy should be prevented rather than glorified. Claim: Policy Organizational Pattern: Problem-solution l. Introduction A. Attention Getter: In todays society, teens are faced with many pressures. The effect of these pressures put on them is the Inability to make good decisions when It comes to certain situations. Two of the most common situations that teens find themselves pressured into have to do with alcohol and sex when they are not ready. And more often than not, the two are related. B. Relevance: Most of us, being on a college campus, have been around alcohol or drugs, whether we care to admit it or not. According to an article titled Teens Tempting Fate, accessed April 30, 2012, when sober, about 75% of teens remember to use protection. While intoxicated, only 10% remember to use protection. Boys, imagine waking up next to a random girl, not remembering what happened the night before, and then finding out a month later that she is pregnant with your child. Girls, imagine being in the same situation, but having to contact that random boy and tell him that you are pregnant. C. Credibility: A few years ago, this very problem happened to one of my friends, and I had to support her as she went through all of the hardships of being pregnant at 16. Her situation got me interested in what can be done to prevent this issue. D. Thesis: In my pollen, the problem of teenage pregnancy should be prevented rather than glorified. E. We will write a custom essay sample on Teenage Pregnancy speech specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Teenage Pregnancy speech specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Teenage Pregnancy speech specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Preview: To further understand why teenage pregnancy Is such an Issue, I will first discuss some of the biggest causes of teenage pregnancy, then, the effects that media has on a teenagers view of teenage pregnancy, and finally, discuss some f the solutions that have been brought up. Transition: To begin, I will talk about some of the situations that teens are put In that can lead to becoming pregnant at a young age. II. Body A. There are many supposed causes for teenage pregnancies, some more common than others. Most high schools have a health education class. At my high school, this class was required for every student to take their sophomore year. In this class, we learned everything we would ever need to know about our bodies, Including how schools have a sex education program, for others this is not the case. I. According o Judy Cherish, in an interview conducted on April 25, 2012, the high school in her town, Princeton Texas, does not have a sex education program. In 2006, the state of Texas had the highest rate of pregnancies in the entire US. Lack of sex education is said to play a big role in teenage pregnancies. On the flip side, a lot of kids who know all about birth control are simply too scared or to embarrassed to ask about it. Girls might be afraid to ask their parents about birth control because she is afraid that her parents will be displeased that she is having sex. Boys might be embarrassed to go to the local C.V. to buy a pack of condoms. Another big contributor to teenage pregnancy is peer pressure. There are plenty of girls that have been pressured to have sex when they are not ready. When you are young and dont know the difference between right and wrong, peer pressure is an easy thing to give in to. As sad as it is, rape is another source of multiple teenage pregnancies. Sometimes the abuser is a random man, but there have been multiple cases with a friend or family member being the abuser. According to the article Causes of Teenage Pregnancies, accessed earlier this week, in a study, the abuser was at least ix years older than the victim. Transition: Whether a teenager has had a sex deed class or not, most of them have been around the media. B. Certain television shows give an unrealistic impression of what being a teenage parent is actually like. Most of us have heard of the BBC Family show the Secret Life of the American Teenager. In my opinion, this show is accidental glorification of the life on a teenage mom. According to the article The Media Addresses Teenage Pregnancy, accessed earlier this week, the show is centered on Amy, a teenage mother, and everything she goes through being a mother. Now this is where BBC Family goes wrong. Amy is offered a Job that provides free health insurance and free daycare. The father of the baby gets a Job and an apartment, and also helps out with the baby. BBC is giving teens the illusion that everything works out for a teen mother and everyone will drop everything to help out with the baby. They are not showing the realities of being a teen parent. On the other side of the argument, there are some shows that do depict the ugly truth of being a parent so young. Mats 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom definitely make teen pregnancy look like a living hell. These woo shows reveal all of the hardships that come along on the road to being a parent, such as the tough decisions, the financial problems, and they even show the painful births. While these families no doubt are being paid buckets of money to be on this show, it does give a better view on what teenage pregnancy is actually like rather than Abss fantasy version. Although Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant give a good example of what it is like, some girls are still desperate to have a baby, and that will never change. Transition: Finally, we will discuss some of the solutions that can help the issue. First choice would be abstinence. This is the only way to be 100% sure that you will not get pregnant, but most people who are already sexually active dont like this choice. Girls, at this age, you can talk to your doctors on your own and obtain birth control pills such as Hazy or Seasonings. If you do happen to find yourself in a situation where you would need it, Plan B is always available at the pharmacy. Plan B is simply a higher dose off birth control drug. Another very obvious option is condoms. I understand that it is embarrassing to be seen buying condoms at th e store, but honestly is it worth risking having a baby to save yourself a little embarrassment? They are cheap and there are a large variety of them. All around a much better option than risking getting pregnant. Transition: By learning about the issue of teenage pregnancy we can reduce the subject of kids having kids. Ill. Conclusion A. No matter what we do there is no way to completely eliminate teenage pregnancy. B. Kids are going to have sex no matter what because, well, they are kids. They want to feel grown up. But we can take certain steps to try to reduce the number of young pregnancies. C. So, next time you find yourself in a situation similar to this, Just remember, dont be silly, wrap your Wily!

Private Schools in Westchester County, New York

Private Schools in Westchester County, New York Westchester County, north of New York City, is home to several private schools. This list concentrates on non-parochial college-prep private schools. Hackley School Founded in 1899Located in Tarrytown840 Students, Grades K-12 Hackley School was founded in 1899 by Mrs. Caleb Brewster Hackley, a Unitarian leader who dedicated the mansion where she summered to start the school. The school was originally a boarding school for boys from a broad variety of economic, ethnic, and religious backgrounds. In 1970, the school became co-ed and, from 1970 to 1972, added a K-4 program. The boarding program is now a five-day program. The school, which now enrolls 840 students K-12, has a rigorous academic program and 62 sports teams, building on the schools tradition of having an early football team. The school has always valued community and the power of friendship. The schools mission reads as follows, Hackley challenges students to grow in character, scholarship, and accomplishment, to offer unreserved effort, and to learn from the varying perspectives and backgrounds in our community and the world. Students tend to score well on Advanced Placement (AP) exams, and the middle 50% of a recent graduating class ranged from 1280-1460 on the Math and Critical Reading sections of the SAT (out of a possible 1600). According to the headmaster, Diversity is fundamental to our understanding of what good education is and one of the hallmarks of our communitys culture. Masters School Founded in 1877Located in Dobb Ferry588 Students, Grades 5-12 Located in Dobbs Ferry, 30 miles from New York City, Masters School was founded in 1877 by Eliza Bailey Masters, who wanted her students, who were girls, to have a serious classical education and not just the education provided by a typical finishing school. As a result, the girls at the school studied Latin and math, and by the turn of the century, the curriculum became college-preparatory in nature. The school attracted boarding students from across the country. In 1996, the school became co-ed in the Upper School, and an all-boys middle school was created to exist alongside the all-girls middle school. The Upper School also started to use oval-shaped Harkness tables and their attendant discussion-based teaching style, which originated at Phillips Exeter Academy. The school also began the CITY term , a semester program that uses New York City as a learning laboratory. The school now enrolls 588 students from grades 5-12 (boarding and day) and recently built a new science and technology center. Twenty-five percent of students receive financial aid. The schools mission reads, The Masters School provides a challenging academic environment that encourages critical, creative, and independent habits of thought and a lifelong passion for learning. The Masters School promotes and celebrates academic achievement, artistic development, ethical action, athletic endeavor, and personal growth. The School maintains a diverse community that encourages students to participate actively in decisions affecting their lives and to develop an appreciation of their responsibilities to the larger world. Rye Country Day School Founded in 1869Located in Rye850 Students, Grades PK-12 RCDS was founded in 1869 when local parents invited a schoolmaster named Reverend William Life and his wife, Susan, to Rye to educate their daughters. Opened as the Rye Female Seminary, the school began to concentrate on preparing girls for college. In 1921, the school merged with the all-boys Rye Country School to form the Rye Country Day School. Today, 850 students in grades Pre-K through 12 attend the school. Fourteen percent of its students receive financial aid. The schools mission reads as follows, Rye Country Day School is a coeducational, college preparatory school dedicated to providing students from Pre-Kindergarten through Grade 12 with an excellent education using both traditional and innovative approaches. In a nurturing and supportive environment, we offer a challenging program that stimulates individuals to achieve their maximum potential through academic, athletic, creative and social endeavors. We are actively committed to diversity. We expect and promote moral responsibility, and strive to develop strength of character within a respectful school community. Our goal is to foster a lifelong passion for learning, understanding, and service in an ever-changing world. Rippowam Cisqua: A PreK-9 School Founded in 1916Located in Mount Kisco (the Lower School campus)Located in Bedford (the Middle School campus)521 Students, Grades PK-9 Rippowam was founded in 1916 as the Rippowam School for Girls. In the early 1920s, the school became co-ed, and it later merged with the more progressive Cisqua School in 1972. The school now has an average class size of 18 students, and a faculty-to-student ratio of 1:5. Many of the schools graduates go on to attend top boarding schools and local day schools. The schools mission reads as follows: The mission of Rippowam Cisqua School is to educate students to become independent thinkers, confident in their abilities and themselves. We are committed to a dynamic program of academics, the arts, and athletics, and support an engaged faculty to challenge students to discover and explore their talents to the fullest. Honesty, consideration, and respect for others are fundamental to Rippowam Cisqua. In an atmosphere that promotes intellectual curiosity and a lifelong love of learning, Rippowam Cisqua strives to instill in students a strong sense of connection to their community and to the larger world. We, as a school, recognize the common humanity of all people and teach understanding and respect for the differences among us.

Breast Cancer in Australian Women

Breast Cancer in Australian Women Breast cancer is most common cancer in Australian women. Breast cancer occurs when the cells lining the breast ducts or lobules grow abnormally and out of control.There are two common broad groups of breast cancers: Pre-invasive: where the cancer cells are still confined to the ducts or lobules of the breast.Invasive: this means the cancer has spread outside the ducts or lobules of the breast into the surrounding tissue. Breast screening is an important element in the response to breast cancer incidence in our communities. Some signs and symptoms to be aware of are: A lump, lumpiness or thickening of the breast tissueChanges to the nipple, such as a change in shape, crusting, a sore or ulcer, redness, unusual dischargeChanges to the skin of the breast, such as dimpling, unusual redness or other colour changesA change to the shape of the breast, including increase or decrease in sizeSwelling or discomfort in the armpitPersistent pain that is not related to your normal menstrual cycle TREATMENT OPTIONS Breast cancer treatment is often a multidisciplinary effort, involving: surgerychemotherapy andradiotherapyThere are different approaches available for all three treatment modalities in terms of technique, treatment regimens and prescriptions. Your team of specialists will discuss and recommend what is best suited for your diagnosis.As an example, for early stage breast cancer breast conserving surgery (lumpectomy) followed by a course of chemotherapy and then external beam radiotherapy is a common and standard treatment approach.External Beam Radiotherapy for Breast Cancer Radiotherapy has a vital role in the management of breast cancer.It is used: In conjunction with surgery (either lumpectomy removal of the tumour itself, or mastectomy removal of the breast, including the tumour)Instead of surgery,In advanced cases of cancer for symptom control (palliation)In each of these scenarios the treatment program is individualised for the patient based on the surgery undertaken, and the pathology and disease staging test results. Sometimes only the breast (or chest) requires radiation and sometimes both the breast and any affected lymph nodes are treated.Routinely radiotherapy treatment is delivered using External Beam Radiotherapy, but brachytherapy is also a viable treatment option for certain patients. Your Radiation Oncologist is the best person to advise you on what treatment is required, how effective the therapy should be, and how the treatment will affect you. AVAILABLE SERVICES All of our Genesis Cancer Care centres are actively involved in breast cancer research and hold joint multidisciplinary clinics where patient cases are discussed by surgeons, radiation and medical oncologists so that optimal overall care and treatment planning can be achieved. These groups of specialist treatment physicians are also supported by pathologists and radiologists who provide important diagnosis reports and investigations.Our treatment centres, in addition to providing the highest quality treatment services make support care via breast nurses and counsellors readily available. Link to Quick Links

The Economic Role of R & D Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Economic Role of R & D - Essay Example However, behind all these, Canada seems to have been a very quiet spectator seeming lagging on the development bandwagon. The country seems to have been a very quite neighbour, dwarfed by the gigantic research and development machinery of the United States. Sancton1 abhors the seemingly backwardness and lack of initiative on the Canadian government to invest in research and development comparing the cities’ innovations that are left wanting as well as the seemingly lack of political will to support such investments that will lead to economic development. However, it is quite unfair to match the two nations evenly since there is a large difference between the dollars allotted by Americans to research and development than Canadians. Hence, it is only fair for any country with lesser resources to allocate these much more intelligently and therefore focus of the much needed improvements that are essential for the betterment of their constituents. Thus, even governments and non-pro fit organizations have adopted the use of the balanced scorecard (BSC) postulated by Kaplan and Norton in order to be able to have a more strategically planned allocation of these resources. Of course these institutions work on a limited funding whereby there are the limitations of taxes and grants respectively2. Hence, in light of the aforementioned limitations, Canada cannot go toe-to-toe with its giant neighbour in terms of research spending. However, as Clark brings forward, the country has more consciously focused their research efforts in order to have more impact and to be able to bring in more economic developments given the limited amount of funding available3. A Parallel Flux There has been an increasingly similarity though on the forces that affect the two countries. The impact of the forces has steadily been having the same effect on the US and Canada whereby there has been an increasing similarity in the responses of the two countries as the effects of such forces affec t the two countries in almost the same way. However, as mentioned, the capability of the latter seem wanting as compared to the former4. Indeed, Canada needs to step up on the research and development area since the competition globally has likewise become stiffer. Of course Canadians will want to enjoy the same economic prosperity by the other countries, especially its peers among the advanced economies. There have been improvements that have crept at towards the close of the last century5. However, these changes have not moved fast when the speed of the global economy shifted to a higher gear when the technological innovations kicked in during the past decade. Indeed, the only effect of the housing crisis of the US in Canada was the dampening in the demand for housing needs, particularly lumber, which goes to show the extent to the disparity between the neighbouring economies. Focused Improvement In effect, the country has to really focus its efforts to improve their research and technology. Basically, economics is about allocating scarce resources and Canada knows that compared to its giant neighbour, their resources are indeed lacking. However, research truly involves more than funding since it also involves the intelligence of researchers and of course their creativity which cannot always be calibrated. But, given the realities, the

Job Satisfaction Statistical Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Job Satisfaction Statistical Analysis - Essay Example As the paper stresses the statistics presented at this stage did not contribute to the validation of either the null or the alternate hypothesis but more generally fortified the claim that job dissatisfaction was high among practitioners of this particular profession. Therefore, at his point, one can critique the mentioned research on the basis of its having including statistics which may be deemed irrelevant with the context of the hypothesis set. This essay declares that the criticism here is the same as above. In brief, the statistics cited are relevant to neither the null nor the alternate hypothesis. Certainly, the researchers proved the existence of a problem within the profession as indicated by statistics signaling that the greater majority planned to retire the profession. However, while one may logically assume that the stated intention is reflective of job satisfaction, the fact is that this is an unproven assumption, unsupported by the set of statistics provided by the re searchers. Hence, within the context of this particular research, the statistical data employed proved high turnover ad a lack of organizational commitment but neither proven the null nor the alternate hypotheses. The null hypothesis, that positive work experience is positively related to job satisfaction was supported through statistical data collected from quantitative questionnaires distributed among the sample population.

Business Ethics in Bangladesh Essay Example for Free

Business Ethics in Bangladesh Essay Social responsibility requires individuals engaging in business endeavors to behave in an ethical manner. Ethics are principles of behavior that distinguish between right and wrong. Ethical conduct conforms to what a group or society as a whole considers right behavior. People working in business frequently face ethical questions. Business ethics is the evaluation of business activities and behavior as right or wrong. Ethical standards in business are based on commonly accepted principles of behavior established by the expectations of society, the firm, the industry, and an individual’s personal values. Critically, Business Ethics can be defined as the critical, structured examination of how people institutions should behave in the world of commerce. In particular, it involves examining appropriate constraints on the pursuit of self-interest, or (for firms) profits, when the actions of individuals or firms affects others. (9) With unethical business practices often receiving publicity, the public sometimes believe that people in business are less ethical than others in society. But ethical problems challenge all segments of our society, including government, churches, and higher education. Most business leaders realize their firms cannot succeed without the trust of customers and the goodwill of society. A violation of ethics makes trust and goodwill difficult to maintain. In thousands of companies, executives and employees act according to the highest ethical standards. Unfortunately managers in some firms behave unethically, and these instances are often highly publicized. Personnel executive say the major reason managers behave unethically is to obtain power and money. Business ethics is a wider term that includes many other sub ethics that are relevant to the respective field. For example there is marketing ethics for marketing, ethics in HR for Human Resource Department and the like. Business ethics itself is a part of applied ethics; the latter takes care of ethical questions in the technical, social, legal and business ethics. Origin of Business Ethics When we trace the origin of business ethics we start with a period where profit maximization was seen as the only purpose of existence for a business. There was no consideration whatsoever for non-economic values, be  it the people who worked with organizations or the society that allowed the business to flourish. It was only in late 1980’s and 1990’s that both intelligentsia and the academics as well as the corporate began to show interest in the same. Nowadays almost all organizations lay due emphasis on their responsibilities towards the society and the nature and they call it by different names like corporate social responsibility, corporate governance or social responsibility charter. Primary and Important Sources of Business ethics Ethics in general refers to a system of good and bad, moral and immoral, fair and unfair. It is a code of conduct that is supposed to align behaviors within an organization and the social framework. But the question that remains is, where and when did business ethics come into being? Primarily ethics in business is affected by the following sources – family, religion, culture, legal system, codes of conduct, and personal experience. It is for this reason we do not have uniform or completely similar standards across the globe. These factors exert influences to varying degrees on humans which ultimately get reflected in the ethics of the organization. For example, ethics followed by Grameen Phone Ltd. are different from those followed by Square Group or Unilever for that matter. Again ethical procedures vary across geographic boundaries. Family A person’s values is the source of their ethics, and it is their philosophy, spiritual or religious beliefs that usually help mold and shape those values, but most of all it is how a person is raised by his family that sets the foundation for his ethics in later life. It’s the basic source of business ethics. Religion It is one of the oldest foundations of ethical standards. Religion wields varying influences across various sects of people. It is believed that ethics is a manifestation of the divine and so it draws a line between the good and the bad in the society. Depending upon the degree of religious influence we have different sects of people; we have sects, those who are referred to as orthodox or fundamentalists and those who are called as moderates. Needless to mention, religion exerts itself to a greater degree among the orthodox and to lesser extent in case of moderates. Fundamentally however all the religions operate on the principle of reciprocity towards ones fellow beings! Culture Culture is a pattern of behaviors and values that are transferred from one generation to another, those that are considered as ideal or within the acceptable limits. No wonder therefore that it is the culture that predominantly determines what is wrong and what is right. It is the culture that defines certain behavior as acceptable and others as unacceptable. Human civilization is fact has passed through various cultures, wherein the moral code was redrafted depending upon the epoch that was. What was immortal or unacceptable in certain culture became acceptable later on and vice versa. During the early years of human development where ones who were the strongest were the ones who survived! Violence, hostility and ferocity were thus the acceptable. Approximately 10,000 year ago when human civilization entered the settlement phase, hard work, patience and peace were seen as virtues and the earlier ones were considered otherwise. These values are still in practice by the managers of to day. Still further, when human civilization witnessed the industrial revolution, the ethics of agrarian economy was replaced by the law pertaining to technology, property rights etc. Ever since a tussle has ensued between the values of the agrarian and the industrial economy! Laws or Legal System of a Country Laws are procedures and code of conduct that are laid down by the legal system of the state. They are meant to guide human behavior within the social fabric. The major problem with the law is that all the ethical expectations cannot be covered by the law and specially with ever changing outer environment the law and specially with ever changing outer environment the law keeps on changing but often fails to keep pace. In business, complying with the rule of law is taken as ethical behavior, but organizations often break laws by evading taxes, compromising on quality,  service norms etc. Business Codes of Conduct A business code of ethics is a series of established principles an organization uses when operating in business or society. Organizations often develop these codes to ensure that all individuals working in the company operate according to the same standards. Most individuals have an internal code of ethics or moral principles they follow in life. A situation one individual finds ethically reprehensible may not seem so to another individual. Using a code of ethics in business attempts to create a basic understanding of acceptable ethical behavior to be used when handling situations involving the company, government agencies and the general public. Past Experience If an individual is rewarded or is not punished for behaving unethically, the behavior will probably be repeated. This type of experience encourages other to do unethical things in future. Likewise the threat of punishment and the lack of reward for unethical activities encourage that particular person and all others to behave ethically. Factors Influencing Ethical Behavior To encourage ethical behavior, executives, managers, and owners of firms must understand what influences behavior in the first place. The several factors that affect individuals’ behavior in business: the business environment, organizational factors, and an individual’s personal moral philosophy. The Business Environment Almost daily, business managers face ethical dilemmas resulting from the pressure of the business environment. They are challenged to meet sales quotas, cut costs, increase efficiency, or overtake competitors. Managers and employees may sometimes think the only way to survive in the competitive world of business is by deception or cheating. In some instances, an organization may use someone else’s successful work without the permission of the owner or originator. Conflict of interest is another common ethical problem stemming from the business environment. Often an individual has a  chance to further selfish interests rather than the interests of the organization or society. To gain favor with people who make purchasing decisions for their companies, a seller may offer special favors or gifts, ranging from a metal to clothing to trips. Some offer cash-a kickback-for putting through a contract or placing orders with a company. Others offer bribes. Such illegal conduct will damage the organization in the long run. In order to limit unethical behavior, business firms must begin by expecting their employees to obey all laws and regulations. The international business environment presents further ethical dilemmas. Business people and government officials in different countries and cultures often operate according to different ethical standards. The Organization The organization itself also influences ethical behavior. Individuals often learn ethical or unethical behaviors by interacting with others in the organization. An employee who sees a superior or co-worker behaving unethically may follow suit. An organization can also use rewards to influence the behavior of its members. If an individual is rewarded or is not punished for behaving unethically, the behavior will probably be repeated. Likewise the threat of punishment and the lack of reward for unethical activities encourage ethical behavior. The severity of punishment also sends a message to other individuals who might be considering similar activities. The Individual Values A person’s own moral philosophy also influences his or her ethical behavior. A moral philosophy is the set of principles that dictate acceptable behavior. These principles are learned from family, friends, co-workers, and other social groups and through formal education. In developing a moral philosophy, individuals can follow two approaches: The Humanistic Philosophy focuses on individual rights and values. Individuals and organizations adopting this philosophy would honor their moral duties to customers and workers. Individuals and organizations following the Utilitarian Philosophy seek the greatest good for the largest number of people. Importance of Business Ethics Most of us would agree that it is ethics in practice that makes sense; just having it carefully drafted and redrafted in books may not serve the purpose. Of course all of us want to be fair, clean and beneficial to the society. For that to happen, organizations need to abide by ethics or rule of law, engage themselves in fair practices and competition; all of which will benefit the consumer, the society and organization. Primarily it is the individual, the consumer, the employee or the human social unit of the society who benefits from ethics. In addition ethics is important because of the following: 1. Satisfying Basic Human Needs: Being fair, honest and ethical is one of the basic human needs.  Every employee desires to be such himself and to work for an organization that is fair and ethical in its practices. 2. Creating Credibility: An organization that is believed to be driven by moral values is respected in the society even by those who may have no information about the working and businesses of that organization. British American Tobacco, for example is perceived as an organization for good corporate governance and social responsibility initiatives. This perception is held far and wide even by those who do not even know what business the organization is into. 3. Uniting People and Leadership: An organization driven by values is revered by its employees also. They are the common thread that brings the employees and the decision makers on a common platform. This goes a long way in aligning behaviors within the organization towards achievement of one common goal or mission. 4. Improving Decision Making: A man’s destiny is the sum totals of all the decisions that he/she takes in course of his life. The same holds true for organizations. Decisions are driven by values. For example, an organization that does not value competition will be fierce in its operations aiming to wipe out its competitors and establish a monopoly in the market. 5. Long Term gains: Organizations guided by ethics and values are profitable in the long run, though in the short run they may seem to lose money. For Example, Tata group, one of the largest business conglomerates in India was  seen on the verge of decline at the beginning of 1990’s, which soon turned out to be otherwise. The same company’s Tata NANO car was predicted as a failure, and failed to do well but the same is picking up fast now. 6. Securing the Society: Often ethics succeeds law in safeguarding the society. The law machinery is often found acting as a mute spectator, unable to save the society and the environment. Technology, for example is growing at such a fast pace that the by the time law comes up with a regulation we have a newer technology with new threats replacing the older one. Lawyers and public interest litigations may not help a great deal but ethics can. Business Ethics- Practice in Bangladesh In Bangladesh, though practice of Business ethics is still not so commendable in public sector and small companies, but business ethics has been an increasing concern among larger companies, at least since the 1990s. Major corporations increasingly fear the damage to their image associated with press revelations of unethical practices. The following information about the functions relating ethics and social responsibility of 2 reputed companies of our country will give a brief idea about the practice of Business Ethics in Bangladesh. ACI Limited Advanced Chemical Industries (ACI) Limited is one of the leading conglomerates in Bangladesh, with a multinational heritage. They have a mission to achieve business excellence through quality by understanding, accepting, meeting and exceeding customer expectations. They follow International Standards on Quality Management System to ensure consistent quality of products and services to achieve customer satisfaction. They are focusing on improving the food habit of consumers through providing more ready to cook products and ready to eat as well. Their visions are to establish harmonious relationship with the community and promote greater environmental responsibility within its sphere of influence. Their Values are Quality, Customer Focus, Fairness, Transparency, Continuous Improvement, and Innovation. Ethical Approaches: Societal Development through Educational Programs: ACI’s guiding principle in all its operations is to be a responsible corporate citizen. Thus Social Responsibility is a top priority for every individual at ACI. Their Initiatives and significant contribution to societal development is Continued Medical Education (CME) for medical professionals and Children’s Education Programs. ACI has also undertaken an English Education program in Faridpur, one of the remotest districts of Bangladesh. This provides support to teach English Language to school going children. Doctors in Bangladesh who are not living in the metropolitan cities have very limited access to the Internet or any other sources of information. In order to keep them updated on the developments in the medical practices regularly, the CME program has been proven highly effective. ACI believes that by promoting education of children, they are contributing to societal development by shaping the minds of their futur e leaders. Environment Friendly Practices: ACI has undertaken extensive programs to educate crop farmers all over rural Bangladesh in Good Agricultural Practices. They have a team of agricultural experts working at the field level all across the country, holding a range of technical trainings and field demonstrations. ACI also has similar education programs for animal and poultry farmers. These include, Technical trainings on diverse aspects of farming, and on application of new technologies, Farmers‘ group meeting for sharing of learning and experience, Free visits to farms by veterinarians, to identify problems and give advices to individual farmers. Most importantly, making the farmers aware of ways to protect the environment from hazardous uses of chemicals on their farms, allowing them the opportunity for informed decision-making. ACI hopes to continue to play a leading role in promoting greater environmental responsibility among farmers in Bangladesh. Unethical Approaches: ACI Company produces some products which do not work properly, like ACI Aerosol. It is mainly produced for killing mosquitoes, but that’s not true. Most of the mosquitoes go away for sometimes but not killed. Sometimes some  products like ACI Atta, ACI Maida, etc contains 1975 grams instead of 2000 grams but they fix their prices for 2kg of the products. These are unethical for their marketing practices. Unilever Bangladesh Limited Over the last four decades, Unilever Bangladesh has been constantly bringing new and world class products for the Bangladeshi people to remove the daily drudgery of life. Over 90% of the country’s households use one or more of Unilever products. They aim to give everybody a little something to celebrate about themselves every day. They believe that to succeed in business, it is essential to maintain the highest standards of corporate behavior towards everyone they work with, the communities they touch, and the environment on which they have an impact. Ethical Approaches: Effective Code of business principles: Their code of business principles describes the operational standards that everyone at Unilever follows, wherever they are in the world. It also supports their approach to governance and corporate responsibility. Code of business principles are- Standard of conduct, Obey the law, employees, consumers, shareholders, business partners, community involvement, public activities, the environment, innovation, competition, business integrity, conflict of interest, compliance, reporting, monitor. Women Development and Women Empowerment: Unilever strongly believes in the importance of empowering women in Bangladesh, because the progress of any society will be constrained if a significant part of its population is neglected and excluded from the benefits of development. They believe, with economic and educational empowerment, women can become more vocal about their rights and become stronger in withstanding repression in any form. So they have established â€Å"Fair Lovely Foundation†. The mission of this foundation is to encourage economic empowerment of Bangladeshi women through information and resources in the areas of Education, Career and Enterprise. It is this realization that has brought about the Fair Lovely Foundation Scholarship Program. Under this scholarship scheme, women who have passed their HSC each receives a Taka 25,000 scholarship to support her tertiary level education. Unethical Approaches: Unilever produces Fair lovely fairness cream, lotion, etc and they claim that skin color will be white after using this product. But that it is not true. There are no scientific values about whiteness. This is totally unethical performance in marketing activities of this company. Comparative Customer Evaluation on Ethical Performances of 3 Reputed Companies of Bangladesh Figure Customer Response on Maintenance of Ethical Procedure by the Companies (1) Figure Customer Response on Deceptive Practices Used by the Companies (1) Figure Customer Response on Significant Contribution toward Ethical Marketing (1) Figure Customer Response on Satisfaction through Using Products of the Companies (1) Figure Customer Response on Changing of Defective Products by the Companies (1) Bribery Nepotism- A Curse against Ethical Practice Corruption is a very strong example of unethical behavior and it is still prevailing in different business sectors of our country in the form of Bribery and Nepotism. Nepotism is the way in which someone approaches and compels a person of power and authority to take necessary steps to get his work done by capitalizing kinship, friendship or political lobbying. Bribery means offering gifts, money etc. to get a work done in unethical way. Often public officers are infamously alleged for taking bribes to award public contracts using their power. Bribery and Nepotism also exist in the corporate world, which is very harmful for ethical practices and creates hindrances in building proper and ethical business environment. Managing or Encouraging Ethical Behavior Managing the financial operations of a company can be a complex effort. Companies need to balance their desire to grow with the realities of maintaining their financial relationships, satisfying their investors and making a profit. Government Regulations: The government can do so by legislating more stringent regulations. But, rules require enforcement and when in many cases there is evidence of lack of enforcement even the ethical business person will tend to slip something by without getting caught. Increased regulation may help, but it surely cannot solve the entire business ethics problems. Trade Associations Setting Guidelines: Trade associations can and often do provide ethical guidelines for their members. These organizations within particular industries are in an excellent position to exert pressures on members that stoop to questionable business practices. Companies Providing Code of Ethics: Employees can more easily determine and adopt acceptable behavior when companies provide them with a code of ethics. Such codes are perhaps the most effective way to encourage ethical behavior. A code of ethics is a written guide to acceptable and ethical behavior that outlines uniform policies, standards and punishments for violations. Because employees know what is expected of them and what will happen if they violate the rules, a code of ethics goes a long way towards encouraging ethical behavior. However, codes cannot possibly cover every situation. Companies must also create an environment in which employees recognize the importance of complying with the written code. Managers must provide direction by fostering communication, actively modeling and encouraging ethical decision making, apart from investing in training employees to make ethical decisions. Whistle Blowing Technique: Sometimes, even employees who want to act ethically may find it difficult to do so. Unethical practices can become ingrained in an organization. Employees with high personal ethics may then take a controversial step called whistle blowing. Whistle blowing is informing the press or government officials about unethical practices in an organization. Whistle blowing could have averted disaster and prevented  needless deaths in the Challenger space shuttle disaster, for example. How could employees have known about life-threatening problems and let them pass? Whistle blowing on the other hand, can have serious repercussions for employees; those who make waves sometimes lose their jobs. Conclusion The main objective of business is to serve people with their every need for the well-being of human being and to ensure that, there is no alternative of following business ethics. Since the practice of business ethics in our country is still not ubiquitous, we are not getting the proper environment for the business, and thus often we are facing some crisis situation and it is hampering our total economic development. Our policy makers and the top executives of the organizations should give more concern in making ethical policies and take proper steps to encourage business executives and service holders to follow them. References 1) â€Å"Ethics In Marketing On Bangladesh Perspective: Study on Few Companies of Bangladesh†- collected from â€Å"World Journal of Management Volume 2. Number 2. September 2010†, the direct link- http://wbiaus.org/10.%20Tajmeela-FINAL.pdf 2) â€Å"Business for the 21st Century†- Skinner Ivancevich 3) â€Å"An Integrated Approach to Business Studies† (4th edition)- Bruce R Jewell 4) â€Å"Business Studies† (4th edition)- Dave Hall-Rob Jones-Carlo Raffo- Alain Anderton 5) www.managementstudyguide.com 6) www.smallbusiness.chron.com 7) www.cwafford.conveycontent.com 8) www.sagepub.com/upm-data/10923_Chapter1.pdf 9) www.businessethics.ca/definitions/business-ethics.html